Global Financial System

Tag: Global Financial System

August 23, 2022

अमेरिकामा ब्याजदर बढ्दा संसारभर किन पर्छ असर ?

– NISCHAL Dhungel, Non-Resident Fellow

The opinion piece originally appeared in the Naya Patrika Daily on 22 August 2022. Please read the original article here.

विश्वव्यापी अर्थतन्त्र अझै पनि कोभिड–१९ महामारीबाट गुज्रिरहेका वेला, उन्नत अर्थतन्त्रमा रहेका केन्द्रीय बैंकहरूले ब्याजदर बढाइरहेका छन्, जसले विश्वको बाँकी देशहरूमा ठूलो प्रभाव पार्नेछ । अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय मुद्रा कोषको (आइएमएफ)को ‘विश्व आर्थिक परिदृश्य’ प्रतिवेदनले विश्वव्यापी वृद्धि घट्ने अनुमान गरेको छ । विशेष गरी उदीयमान र विकासशील राष्ट्रहरूका लागि बढ्दो सामाजिक र आर्थिक जोखिमहरूको पूर्वानुमान पनि गरेको छ । रुस–युक्रेन द्वन्द्वले नीतिगत ट्रेड अफलाई सन्तुलनमा राख्न चुनौतीपूर्ण बनाएको छ ।

मुद्रास्फीतिसँग लड्न, आर्थिक सुधारको संरक्षण गर्न, अर्को कमजोरहरूलाई मद्दत गर्न र वित्तीय बफरहरू पुनस्र्थापित गर्न चुनौती छ । रुस–युक्रेन द्वन्द्व र आपूर्ति शृंखला अवरोधका कारण खाद्यान्न र इन्धनको मूल्यवृद्धि बढ्दै जाने देखिन्छ । विशेष गरी कम आय भएका देशहरूको कमजोर जनसंख्यालाई हानि पुर्‍याएको छ । हालै संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिकाको फेडरल रिजर्भले उपभोक्ता मूल्य ८.७ प्रतिशत बढेपछि मुद्रास्फीतिविरुद्धको लडाइँलाई तीव्र पारेको छ । १५ जुन २०२२ मा फेडले १९९४ पछिको उच्च ब्याजदर वृद्धिको घोषणा गर्‍यो । फेडले आगामी दिनमा ब्याजदर अझ बढाउने योजना बनाएको छ । अमेरिकामा ब्याजदर बढाएर मुद्रास्फीति घटाउने फेडरल रिजर्भको प्रयासले बाँकी विश्वलाई नोक्सान पुर्‍याउन सक्छ । अमेरिकाको बढ्दो ब्याजदर मध्यम र न्यून आय भएका देशहरूका लागि दुस्प्रभावी हुने थुप्रै कारण छन् ।

पुँजी पलायन
विकसित राष्ट्रहरूमा कम ब्याजदरको लामो युगपछि लगानीकर्ताले उच्च प्रतिफलको खोजीमा विकासशील र उदीयमान बजारहरूमा आफ्नो अधिक पुँजी केन्द्रित गर्न थाले । विकसित देशहरूमा ब्याजदरमा भएको तीव्र वृद्धिले अमेरिकामा ठूलो पुँजी प्रवाह र विकासोन्मुख देशहरूबाट निकासी बढ्नेछ । अमेरिकामा ब्याजदर बढ्दै जाँदा उदीयमान बजारहरूमा लगानी गर्ने लगानीकर्ताले उच्च प्रतिफलको फाइदा लिनका लागि अमेरिकामा पुँजी स्थानान्तरण गर्ने निर्णय गर्न सक्छन्, किनभने उनीहरूका लागि अमेरिकामा लगानी गर्नु बढी फाइदाजनक हुनेछ ।

ऋण संकट र मुद्रा अवमूल्यन
इतिहासले देखाउँछ कि राष्ट्रहरूको तीव्र आर्थिक विस्तारक्रममा ऋण बढ्ने गर्ने गर्दछ । विशेष गरी विकासोन्मुख देशहरूमा ‘ऋण पासो’ (डेब्ट ट्र्याप) तब हुन्छ, जब उत्पादकता र ऋण सन्तुलनमा रहँदैन । अमेरिकामा बढेको ब्याजदरका कारण विश्वव्यापी ब्याजदर बढ्न सक्छ । धनी देशहरूको केही केन्द्रीय बैंकले ब्याजदर बढाइसके । अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय मुद्रा कोष (आइएमएफ)का अनुसार ३८ उदीयमान अर्थतन्त्र खतरामा छन् वा हाल ऋण संकटमा छन् ।

सन् २०१९ र २०२१ को बीचमा महामारीले विकासशील अर्थतन्त्रहरूमा सार्वजनिक ऋणमा (जिडिपीको ५४ प्रतिशतबाट ६५ प्रतिशतसम्म तीव्र वृद्धि ल्यायो । कम्तीमा २५ विकासशील अर्थतन्त्रले आफ्नो सरकारी आयको २० प्रतिशतभन्दा बढी विदेशी सार्वजनिक ऋण सेवामा खर्च गर्छन् । आइएमएफले विकसित अर्थतन्त्रहरूमा ब्याजदर वृद्धिले उदीयमान बजार र विकासोन्मुख देशहरूका लागि बाह्य वित्तीय अवस्थालाई असर पार्न सक्ने उल्लेख गरेको छ ।

विकासोन्मुख देशहरूको मुद्रा अवमूल्यन, जसले क्रय शक्तिलाई कम गर्छ र अमेरिकी डलरजस्ता विदेशी मुद्राहरूमा ऋण तिर्न गाह्रो बनाउँछ । यस कारण बढ्दो ब्याजदर उदीयमान अर्थतन्त्रका लागि अर्को जोखिम हुन सक्छ । सन १९८० को प्रारम्भमा फेड ब्याजदर वृद्धिले संयुक्त राज्यमा दोहोरो अंकको मुद्रास्फीति कम ग¥यो, तर विश्वव्यापी रूपमा धेरै देशमा नराम्रो असर पर्‍यो । विशेष गरी ल्याटिन अमेरिकी देशहरूमा ऋण डिफल्ट भयो । बेरोजगारी र गरिबी बढ्यो र जिडिपीमा ठूलो गिरावट आयो । त्यो समयलाई ‘हराएको दशक’ (लस्ट डिकेड) भन्ने गरिन्छ, जहाँ ल्याटिन अमेरिकी देशहरू क्रमिक र असमान पुनरुत्थानमा गुज्रिरहेका थिए । अफ्रिकाका भारी ऋणी राष्ट्रहरूले ल्याटिन अमेरिकाजस्तै समान समस्या झेल्नुपर्‍यो ।

चीनको उदाहरण : ऋण दिगोपन र ऋण व्यवस्थापन
उच्च र बढ्दो ऋण–जिडिपी अनुपात सामान्यतया गैरजिम्मेवार उधारोपनाको संकेत हो । यस्तो गैरजिम्मेवार उधारो कटौती गर्नुपर्छ । बढ्दो ऋणलाई उच्च सरकारी तलब वा ठूला निवृत्तिभरणका लागि उपभोग गर्ने कि शिक्षा र पूर्वाधारजस्ता उत्पादनशीलता बढाउने सार्वजनिक वस्तुहरूमा लगानी गर्ने भन्ने कुरामा ध्यान दिनुपर्छ । ऋण–जिडिपी अनुपात बढ्दा दीर्घकालीन पूर्वाधारमा लगानी कति भयो र उत्पादनशीलता र प्रतिफल कति बढायो भन्ने कुरा महत्वपूर्ण हुन्छ । यस विषयमा श्रीलंका र अफ्रिकी मुलुकबाट पाठ सिक्न सकिन्छ ।

चीनले १९९७–१९९८ र २००८–२००९ मा वित्तीय संकटबाट बच्न विस्तारित वित्तीय र मौद्रिक नीतिको प्रयोग गरेर पूर्वाधार र सामाजिक खर्चहरूमा सार्वजनिक लगानीलाई प्रोत्साहन गरेको थियो । आफ्नो पुँजी खातालाई पूर्ण रूपमा उदारीकरण नगर्दा पनि चीनले राम्रो आर्थिक नतिजा हासिल गरेको छ । विगत ४७ वर्षमा चीनको आक्रामक वृद्धिलाई प्रभावकारी आर्थिक योजना र कार्यान्वयनलगायत स्थिर नीतिले बल दिएको छ ।

नेपालजस्तो देश विकासको प्रारम्भिक चरणमा छ र छोटो अवधिको राजस्व आर्जनलाई परियोजना छनोटका लागि प्राथमिकता दिनुपर्दछ । चीनजस्ता धेरै देशले विकेन्द्रीकृत वित्तीय प्रणाली अपनाएका छन्, जसले वित्तीय स्थायित्वको विश्लेषणलाई जटिल बनाउँछ । चीनमा धेरैजसो सार्वजनिक सामाजिक खर्च स्थानीय सरकारहरूमा निहित हुन्छ, जबकि राजस्व विनियोजन केन्द्र सरकारले नियन्त्रण गर्छ । स्थानीय सरकारहरूले आफ्नो आवश्यकता पूरा गर्न ऋणपत्र जारी गर्छन् र स्थानीय सरकारले आफ्नो वित्तीय प्रणाली बुझ्न महत्वपूर्ण छ ।

अर्थतन्त्रको आकार र संरचनामा धेरै फरक भए पनि नेपाल र श्रीलंकाजस्ता देशले चीनको विकास अनुभवबाट फाइदा लिन सक्छन् । चीनको विकेन्द्रीकृत आर्थिक विकासले स्थानीय सरकार र वित्तीय संस्थाहरूलाई संघीय सरकारभन्दा बढी महत्व दिन्छ, जसले गर्दा लगानी र वित्तीय निर्णय गर्न मद्दत हुन्छ । दीर्घकालीन विकास लक्ष्य हासिल गर्न स्थानीय विकास रणनीति र नीतिहरू राष्ट्रिय प्राथमिकतासँग मिल्नुपर्छ । तर, स्थानीय आर्थिक कार्यसम्पादनका लागि स्थानीय निकायलाई जवाफदेही बनाउनुपर्छ ।

नेपालको सन्दर्भ
नेपाल एउटा यस्तो राष्ट्र हो, जसलाई संरचनात्मक परिवर्तनको नितान्त आवश्यकता छ । समस्या मौलिक भएकाले संरचनात्मक सुधार नै छोटो र दीर्घकालीन जवाफ खोज्ने एक मात्र उपाय हो । भुक्तानी सन्तुलन कायम गरी बाह्य क्षेत्रमाथिको दबाब कम गर्न ऋण विस्तार र क्षेत्रगत वितरणको व्यवस्थापन, अत्यधिक आयात घटाउने र औपचारिक माध्यमबाट रेमिट्यान्स आप्रवाहमा सुधार गर्न आवश्यक छ । मौद्रिक नीतिले बैंकिङ र निजी क्षेत्रहरूलाई वर्तमान वातावरणमा ऋण प्रयोग गर्दा बढी सावधानी र जवाफदेहिता अपनाउन निर्देशन दिनुपर्छ । तीन दशकसम्म उच्च कर्जा वृद्धि भए पनि आर्थिक वृद्धिदर ४.४ प्रतिशत मात्रै रह्यो । यसले हाम्रो कर्जा वृद्धि नीतिले आर्थिक वृद्धिमा सकारात्मक प्रभाव पार्न नसकेको देखाउँछ । आगामी दशकमा आर्थिक वृद्धिलाई प्रत्यक्ष रूपमा सहयोग गर्ने क्षेत्रमा ऋण प्रवाह केन्द्रित हुनुपर्छ । कर्जाको वृद्धि पनि निक्षेप वृद्धिसँग मिल्दो हुनुपर्छ ।

आयात प्रतिस्थापनको सन्दर्भमा निजी क्षेत्रले जिम्मेवार र सक्रियताका साथ काम गर्नुपर्छ, आयातको सट्टा स्वदेशी उत्पादन वृद्धि गर्नुपर्छ । निजी र बैंकिङ क्षेत्रले घरेलु उत्पादन बढाउन सहयोगी सरकारका नीतिहरूसँग मिलेर काम गर्नुपर्छ । आयात र व्यापारमुखी अर्थतन्त्रलाई उत्पादक अर्थतन्त्रमा परिणत गर्ने, अर्थतन्त्रलाई विश्वव्यापी मूल्य शृंखलामा जोड्ने, घरेलु कच्चा पदार्थमा आधारित औद्योगीकरणलाई प्रोत्साहन गर्ने, खुला सिमानाका कारण लामो समयदेखि चलिरहेको आर्थिक घाटा कम गर्ने केही दीर्घकालीन उपाय हुन् ।

हालको कोभिड प्रकोपको सामना गर्न र कठिन परिस्थितिमा विकासका आवश्यकता पूरा गर्न केही नीतिगत विकल्प छन् । संयुक्त राष्ट्रसंघको व्यापार र विकास सम्मेलनले सार्वभौम ऋणको पुनर्संरचनाका लागि बहुपक्षीय कानुनी ढाँचाका लागि वकालत गरेको छ, जसले निष्पक्ष र व्यवस्थित ऋण संकट समाधान ल्याउनेछ, जसले सार्वजनिक र निजी ऋणदाता दुवैलाई समावेश गर्दछ । आइएमएफले थप ऋण जारी गर्न सक्छ । आइएमएफ, विश्व बैंक समूह र क्षेत्रीय वित्तीय व्यवस्था (आरएफएएस)लाई थप आपत्कालीन तरलता ऋण जारी र वितरणलाई छिटो गर्न सकिन्छ । पहिले नै सम्पन्न सार्वजनिक सम्पत्ति परियोजनाहरूमा आधारित नवीन वित्त पोषण र पुनर्वित्त योजनाहरू डिजाइन गर्ने अर्को उपाय हुन्छ, जसलाई ‘सम्पत्ति–आधारित पुनर्वित्त’ पनि भनिन्छ । विश्वव्यापी ऋण–राहत संयन्त्र, जसले संघर्षरत राष्ट्रहरूमा वित्तीय संकट रोक्न सक्छ र थप विवेकपूर्ण उधारो र ऋणका लागि दिशानिर्देश आवश्यक हुन्छ ।

अन्त्यमा, उन्नत देशहरूको ब्याजदर वृद्धिले न्यून आय भएका देशहरूलाई प्रत्यक्ष वा अप्रत्यक्ष रूपमा असर गर्छ । कम आय भएका देशलाई संरचनात्मक सुधारको आवश्यकता छ, जुन आफ्नो ऋण व्यवस्थापन गर्न छोटो र दीर्घकालीन समाधान खोज्न एकदम महत्वपूर्ण छ ।

By admin

Research Commentaries

July 8, 2019

NRC0003 – Libra and the Future of Nepal’s Financial System

Libra and the Future of Nepal’s Financial System

Jaya Jung Mahat

Synopsis

Last month, after years of rumors and user speculations, Facebook finally announced the company’s plan to launch Libra – a new cryptocurrency – early next year. Though we are yet to understand Libra’s detailed arrangement, economists and policymakers have already begun discussing the potential impacts that this new digital currency may bring to the existing global financial system and on few selected major economies. This commentary discusses potential impacts of Libra on Nepal’s financial system. It focuses on four major areas that Libra is likely to have considerable effects on – transfer of remittances, impacts on the “unbanked” population, disruption of existing payment gateways and most importantly questions regarding government regulation of cryptocurrencies.

Introduction

Last month, on June 18, Facebook, along with 27 founding members coming from six distinct sectors announced their plans to launch a new cryptocurrency to be called Libra early next year. Unlike traditional currencies, Libra will not be backed by central banks. However, contrasting other existing cryptocurrencies, Libra will be supported by a reserve of assets and currency’s value will be determined by a currency basket to be finalized by the Libra Associations members. This announcement has prompted a heated debate among economists, central bankers, policy makers and the techpreneurs about the future of cryptocurrency and how Libra will affect the overall global financial system.

This is What We Know About Libra

While making the announcement, Libra Association has also released a 12-page long White Paper highlighting key aspects of this to-be launched new currency. As per the document, Libra aims to be one of the simple global financial currencies and establish a global financial infrastructure that enables the Association to empower billions of people. It is built on a secure blockchain system that also allows Libra to scale up if needed. Moreover, the currency is backed by a reserve of assets that will ultimately define the value of this currency. Also, an independent non-profit association based in Switzerland will govern the Libra ecosystem.

As trust is a key factor for overall success of this new currency, the Libra Association has tried its best to have as many founding members as possible from sectors that have close links with the global financial system. Following are the founding members of the Association (in alphabetical order) and the latter aims to add about 72 more members before going public early next year:

Blockchain: Anchorage, Bison Trails, Coinbase, Inc., and Xapo Holdings Limited
Nonprofit, multilateral organizations and academic institutions: Creative Destruction Lab, Kiva, Mercy Corps, and Women’s World Banking
Payments: Mastercard, Mercado Pago, PayPal, PayU (Naspers’ fintech arm), Stripe, and Visa
Technology and marketplaces: Booking Holdings, eBay, Facebook/Calibra, Farfetch, Lyft, Spotify AB, and Uber Technologies, Inc.
Telecommunications: Iliad and Vodafone Group
Venture Capital: Andreessen Horowitz, Breakthrough Initiatives, Ribbit Capital, Thrive Capital, and Union Square Ventures

On the operational side, Libra will be based on Libra Blockchain that is constructed by taking into consideration three core requirements of a modern digital global currency: scalability, security and flexibility. In terms of a currency reserve, Libra will be fully backup up by the Libra Reserve that will further be supported by a competitive network of exchanges buying and selling the currency coins.

Ongoing Debates

As soon as the news of Libra came into public, there has been hot debates among economists, policymakers, central bankers and the techpreneurs regarding the safe regulation of this new currency, people’s trust on this system and how it will affect existing global financial system.

Though there are some good aspects of Facebook, based on the platform’s past controversies, many critics have cast their doubts over Libra’s hidden goal. Writing for the Project Syndicate, Columbia Law Professor Katharina Pistor has asked global stakeholders to halt Libra before it gets launched next year.

Furthermore, economists Joseph E. Stiglitz and Kausik Basu have raised the issues of online crimes; including those related to compromising user privacy and money laundering; and inflation respectively. Also, the former Deputy Governor of the Reserve Bank of Australia, Stephen Grenville, panics the possibility of Libra causing more severe future capital-market volatility.

To add more, Financial Times’ chief economics commentator – Martin Wolf – fears that Libra may give birth to the existence of a single bank dominated global financial system. In the same line, cryptocurrency critic David Gerard argues that Libra is based on ideological concepts that hardly work in the real world.

Amid all these skepticisms, there are few individual critics and selected institutions that view Libra a desired disruption and they believe it will help global financial system more inclusive and less costly. The Banker, a London-based financial affairs magazine, has published an editorial saying that Libra, despite few shortcomings, will bring in more businesses for all stakeholders involved in the financial sector. Similarly, other critics praise Libra for it’s potential to reinvent the traditional costly ways of cross-border transfer of remittances worldwide and in particular, for Africa, the new currency may help the region to bring in more people into the formal financial system and also reduce the costs of remittance transfers into the region.

Libra and Nepal’s Financial System

Considering growing penetration rates of mobile phones (134.31%) and internet (61.83%), I believe there should be enough debates on Libra and all possible ways it may disrupt Nepal’s existing financial system before last month’s announcement becomes a reality in 2020. However, I do not see that much of debates happening lately – be it among the Nepal Government stakeholders and/or among the key private-sector players, including major banks and financial institutions (BFIs), investors and the techpreneurs.

To stir needed debates in this regard, from what is available so far, I can think of Libra affecting Nepal’s financial sectors in the following four areas:

Transfer of Remittances: According to the most recent Migration and Development Brief, Nepal, with $8.1 billion remittances inflows into the country in 2018, ranks 19th worldwide and fourth in South Asia in terms of the amount of remittances it has received in that year alone. In regards to the remittances and percentage of GDP (28%), Nepal ranks in fifth place worldwide after Tonga, Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan and Haiti. As Libra plans to minimize the costs relating to the cross-border transfer of remittances, concerned stakeholders in Nepal should analyze how this new invention may affect one of the key pillars of Nepali economy.
Impacts on the “Unbanked” Population: As per Nepal’s Central Bank, as of mid-May 2019, the country has 176 BFIs – 28 commercial banks, 32 development banks, 24 finance companies, 91 Microfinance institutions and one infrastructure development bank. Altogether, they have 8,319 branches across the country. Despite these developments, a large percentage of Nepali population remains unbanked. A 2014 report has highlighted disappointing facts related to Nepalis’ access to finance. As per the report, 18% of Nepali adults are fully excluded from existing formal and informal financial products and services. Moreover, 21% of local adults use informal channels while managing their finances. In the light of these evidence, key government and private stakeholders should organize frequent and intensive debates on the possible impacts Libra might bring to “unbanked” Nepalis and economy’s BFIs. While doing so, these stakeholders should also plan their actions to minimize potential risks from Libra when it goes into implementation in 2020.
Disruption of Payment Gateways: To enhance people’s easy access to available financial products and services, in recent years, Nepali techpreneurs have come up with intermediary payment gateways. In addition to such services developed and owned by BFIs; E-sewa, iPay and Khalti are three of the most promising such platforms owned by Nepal’s techpreneurs. As Libra’s current plans are expected to disrupt payment gateways around the globe, Nepali techpreneurs working in this sector should also be cautious enough to minimize the damage that Libra may cause to their platforms.
Regulation of Cryptocurrency: As of now, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) is yet to make an institutional position on Libra. However, the Fund has clearly stated its position on cryptocurrency earlier stating it would support government set-up cryptocurrencies. Bitcoins and similar cryptocurrencies are currently banned in Nepal. As the global financial system keeps on evolving and the IMF, the key regulator of global financial system, also encouraging central banks to adapt to changing circumstances, the concerned authorities in Nepal should also think of timely updating country’s existing financial system to catch up with the rapidly evolving global financial system.

Reference

Basu, K. (2019, June 27). Why Policymakers Should Fear Libra. Project Syndicate. Retrieved from https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/facebook-libra-inflation-control-problem-by-kaushik-basu-2019-06
Caplen, B. (2019, June 25). Editor’s Blog – Fear not, Facebook’s Libra is good for banks. The Banker. Retrieved from https://www.thebanker.com/Editor-s-Blog/Fear-not-Facebook-s-Libra-is-good-for-banks
Conlin, B. (2018, July 19). 7 Unexpected Ways Facebook Is Good for You. Business News Daily. Retrieved from https://www.businessnewsdaily.com/2534-facebook-benefits.html
Dana, J. (2019, July 05). Libra shows global remittance ripe for change. Asia Times. Retrieved from https://www.asiatimes.com/2019/07/article/libra-shows-global-remittance-ripe-for-change/
Gerard, D. (2019, June 24). Facebook’s New Currency Has Big Claims and Bad Ideas. Foreign Policy. Retrieved from https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/06/24/971554-facebook-bitcoin-libra-crypto-bad
Grenville, S. (2019, July 01). The Coming Libra Panics. Project Syndicate. Retrieved from https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/libra-capital-flows-fuel-panic-by-stephen-grenville-2019-07
Hackett, R., Roberts, J.J., and Wieczner, J. (2019, June 17). Facebook’s Cryptocurrency Ambitions Provoke Heated Debate – The Ledger. Furtune. Retrieved from https://fortune.com/2019/06/17/facebook-cryptocurrency-project-libra/
Inman, P. (2018, November 14). IMF says governments could set up their own cryptocurrencies. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/business/2018/nov/14/imf-says-governments-could-set-up-their-own-cryptocurrencies
Libra Association (2019, June 18). Founding Members. Retrieved from https://libra.org/en-US/association/#founding_members
Libra Association (2019, June 18). Libra White Paper. Retrieved from https://libra.org/en-US/white-paper/
Libra Association (2019, June 18). The Reserve. Retrieved from https://libra.org/en-US/about-currency-reserve/#the_reserve
Masuku, A. (2019, July 07). Will Facebook’s digital money Libra be good for Africa?. BBC News. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-48882301
Noonan, L. and Megaw, N. (2019, June 18). Will Facebook’s Libra currency shake up financial services?. Financial Times. Retrieved from https://www.ft.com/content/5c0dbb2c-91eb-11e9-b7ea-60e35ef678d2
NRB. (2017, August 13). Central Bank Circular on Bitcoin and Related Businesses in Nepal. Retrieved from https://nrb.org.np/fxm/notices/BitcoinNotice.pdf
NRB. (2019). Current Macroeconomic and Financial Situation of Nepal (Based on Ten Months’ Data of 2018/19. Retrieved from https://www.nrb.org.np/ofg/current_macroeconomic/CMEs%20Ten%20Months%20English%202075-76-Final.pdf
NTA. (2019, May). MIS Report Chaitra, 2075 (15 March, 2019 – 13 April, 2019). Retrieved from https://nta.gov.np/wp-content/uploads/MIS-Chaitra-2075.pdf
Pistor, K. (2019, June 20). Facebook’s Libra Must Be Stopped. Project Syndicate. Retrieved from https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/facebook-libra-must-be-stopped-by-katharina-pistor-2019-06
Stiglitz, J.E. (2019, July 02). Thumbs Down to Facebook’s Cryptocurrency. Project Syndicate. Retrieved from https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/facebook-libra-facilitates-crime-money-laundering-by-joseph-e-stiglitz-2019-07
The World Bank. (2019, April). Migration and Remittances: Recent Developments and Outlook (Migration and Development Brief 31). Retrieved from https://www.knomad.org/sites/default/files/2019-04/Migrationanddevelopmentbrief31.pdf
UNCDF. (2014). Nepal FinScope Consumer Survey 2014. Retrieved from http://www.finmark.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/BROCH_FS_Nepal_2014.pdf
Wolf, M. (2019, June 25). Facebook enters dangerous waters with Libra cryptocurrency. Financial Times. Retrieved from https://www.ft.com/content/07c05fba-b1c4-11e7-a398-73d59db9e399
Yadav, N. (2019, February 05). 15 Years of Facebook, 15 Years of Controversy: A Timeline of Events. First Post. Retrieved from https://www.firstpost.com/tech/news-analysis/15-years-of-facebook-15-years-of-controversy-a-timeline-of-events-6028641.html

By admin

Type To Search

Type To Search

Contacts